Outlining in Practice

Understanding outlining in theory is one thing. Using it to produce better writing is another. This section walks through complete outlining examples for different essay types, shows you how to convert an outline into a draft, and demonstrates how outline-based revision can transform a disorganized essay into a coherent one.

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Sample Outline 1: Argumentative Essay (IELTS Task 2)

Prompt: Some people believe that universities should focus on providing academic skills, while others think they should prepare students for employment. Discuss both views and give your opinion.

Planning time: 5 minutes

The Outline

Thesis: Universities should primarily teach academic skills but
        incorporate practical employment preparation.

Body 1: Academic skills view
  - Critical thinking, research, analysis = foundation for all careers
  - Knowledge changes; skills to learn are permanent
  - Example: philosophy graduates -- high employability despite
    "impractical" degree

Body 2: Employment preparation view
  - Graduates face competitive job market
  - Employers report skills gap (communication, teamwork, tech)
  - Example: engineering programs with industry placements

Body 3: My view -- balance is best
  - Academic core + applied components
  - Internships, case studies, guest lectures from industry
  - Example: medical schools blend theory and practice successfully

Conclusion: Neither extreme works; integration is the answer.

This outline took approximately four minutes. Notice that it is an informal topic outline, appropriate for timed exam conditions. Each body paragraph has a clear claim, supporting reasoning, and a concrete example.

Why This Outline Works

• Clear thesis position: The writer commits to a balanced view, not a fence-sitting "both sides have merit" non-answer.
• Parallel structure: Each body paragraph follows the same pattern (claim, reasoning, example), making drafting efficient.
• Concrete examples planned in advance: The philosophy graduates, engineering placements, and medical schools are ready to be developed. The writer will not waste exam time searching for examples.

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Sample Outline 2: Analytical Essay (AP English)

Prompt: Analyze how the author uses rhetorical strategies to build an argument about the importance of public libraries.

Planning time: 15 minutes

The Outline

I.   Introduction
     A. The author builds a layered argument that moves from
        emotional appeal to logical evidence to moral imperative.
     B. Thesis: Through strategic use of pathos, logos, and a
        carefully timed ethical appeal, the author constructs an
        argument that makes cutting library funding feel not just
        unwise but morally indefensible.

II.  Pathos: Emotional foundation (paragraphs 1-3 of source)
     A. Opens with anecdote of elderly man learning to read at 74
        1. Specific sensory details create empathy
        2. Reader identifies with human desire for knowledge
     B. Contrasts individual story with impersonal budget statistics
        1. The human face makes abstract cuts feel personal
     C. Effect: Reader is emotionally invested before the argument
        becomes analytical

III. Logos: Logical evidence (paragraphs 4-7 of source)
     A. Shifts to data after emotional groundwork
        1. Library usage statistics (visits, programs, digital access)
        2. Cost-benefit analysis ($1 invested = $5.50 returned)
     B. Anticipates and refutes counterarguments
        1. "Libraries are obsolete" -- addresses with digital divide data
        2. "Private sector can fill the gap" -- addresses with rural access
     C. Effect: Reader now has rational justification for the
        emotional response established earlier

IV.  Ethos: Moral imperative (paragraphs 8-9 of source)
     A. Final paragraphs invoke democratic values
        1. Libraries as the embodiment of equal access
        2. Allusion to Carnegie and the public good tradition
     B. Positions library funding as a moral test, not a budget line
     C. Effect: Cutting funding becomes not just foolish but ethically
        wrong

V.   Conclusion
     A. The three-stage strategy is deliberate: feel, think, then
        judge
     B. By the end, opposing the author feels like opposing literacy,
        democracy, and basic human dignity
     C. The argument's power lies in its sequencing, not just its
        individual elements

This is a formal sentence outline appropriate for a longer analytical essay. Each section specifies not just what the writer will discuss but what argument they will make about it.

Why This Outline Works

• Analytical, not descriptive: Each section does not just identify a rhetorical strategy but explains how it functions and what effect it creates.
• Evidence is mapped: The writer knows which paragraphs of the source text correspond to each section, so they will not spend drafting time hunting for quotations.
• The argument builds: The outline shows progression from pathos to logos to ethos, mirroring the source text's own structure. The analysis has a narrative arc.

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Sample Outline 3: Business Report

Task: Recommend whether the company should expand into the Southeast Asian market.

The Outline

I.   Executive Summary
     - Recommend expansion into Vietnam and Thailand
     - Projected ROI: 18% within 3 years
     - Key risk: regulatory complexity

II.  Market Analysis
     A. Market size and growth projections
        - Vietnam: GDP growth 6.5%, young population, rising middle class
        - Thailand: established consumer market, strong digital infrastructure
     B. Competitive landscape
        - Few direct competitors in our niche
        - Local incumbents lack our technology advantage
     C. Consumer behavior
        - Mobile-first purchasing patterns
        - Brand loyalty still developing = opportunity for early movers

III. Risk Assessment
     A. Regulatory risks
        - Vietnam: foreign ownership restrictions in certain sectors
        - Thailand: data localization requirements
     B. Operational risks
        - Supply chain complexity
        - Talent acquisition in local markets
     C. Financial risks
        - Currency fluctuation
        - Longer-than-expected path to profitability

IV.  Recommendation
     A. Phase 1: Thailand (lower regulatory barriers, test operations)
     B. Phase 2: Vietnam (higher growth potential, enter after
        learning from Phase 1)
     C. Budget: $2.4M initial investment
     D. Timeline: 18 months to Phase 1 launch

V.   Conclusion
     - Strategic alignment with company growth targets
     - Manageable risk with phased approach
     - Request board approval to proceed with Phase 1 planning

This outline demonstrates that outlining is not only for academic essays. Business writing benefits enormously from structured planning, particularly when the document needs to guide decision-making.

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Converting an Outline to a Draft

The transition from outline to draft is where many writers struggle. They have a solid plan but do not know how to expand bullet points into flowing paragraphs. Here is a systematic approach.

Step 1: Turn Each Main Point into a Topic Sentence

Your outline's main points (Roman numerals or top-level bullets) become topic sentences for your paragraphs.

Outline entry: II. Cost advantage: avg car ownership $9,000/yr vs transit pass $1,200/yr

Topic sentence: The most immediate financial argument for public transportation is the dramatic difference in cost between car ownership and transit ridership.

Step 2: Expand Sub-Points into Evidence and Analysis

Your outline's sub-points become the evidence and analysis within each paragraph.

Outline sub-points:

• Average car ownership costs $9,000 per year
• Annual transit pass costs $1,200 on average
• Savings of $7,800 per year

Expanded paragraph:

The most immediate financial argument for public transportation is the dramatic difference in cost between car ownership and transit ridership. According to the American Automobile Association, the average American spends approximately $9,000 per year on car-related expenses, including loan payments, insurance, fuel, maintenance, and parking. By contrast, the average annual cost of a public transit pass in a major U.S. city is roughly $1,200. This means that a household that replaces one car with a transit pass saves nearly $7,800 per year -- enough to cover three months of rent in many cities or to fund a year of community college tuition. For low-income families, this difference is not a minor convenience but a meaningful pathway to financial stability.

Step 3: Add Transitions Between Paragraphs

Your outline shows you what comes next, so you can write transitions that connect paragraphs.

End of cost paragraph, looking forward to environment paragraph:

Beyond the personal financial benefits, shifting from cars to public transit yields significant environmental dividends.

Step 4: Write the Introduction Last (or Revise It)

Many writers find it easier to write the introduction after drafting the body, because by then they know exactly what the essay argues. If you wrote an introduction during outlining, revise it after the body is complete to ensure alignment.

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Before and After: Outline-Based Revision

This example shows how reverse outlining and reorganization can rescue a disorganized essay.

The Problem Draft (Reverse Outlined)

A student wrote an essay arguing that school start times should be pushed later. Here is the reverse outline of their draft:

1. Introduction: Teenagers are tired. Schools start too early.
2. Sleep science: adolescent circadian rhythms shift later in puberty.
3. My personal experience: I am always tired in first period.
4. Some schools have changed start times.
5. Counterargument: parents need early start for work schedules.
6. Sleep deprivation causes car accidents in teen drivers.
7. Academic performance improves with later start times.
8. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends starting after 8:30 AM.
9. Athletes perform better when well-rested.
10. Conclusion: Schools should start later.

Diagnosis

The reverse outline reveals several problems:

• Entry 3 (personal experience) is anecdotal and weak compared to the scientific evidence around it. It should be cut or moved to the hook.
• Entry 4 (some schools have changed) is vague and unconnected. It needs specific examples and results.
• Entry 5 (counterargument) appears in the middle and is never refuted.
• Entries 6, 7, and 9 are all benefits of later start times but appear scattered among other topics.
• There is no logical progression. The essay jumps between science, personal experience, examples, counterarguments, and benefits without a clear organizational strategy.

The Revised Outline

After diagnosis, the student reorganizes:

I.   Introduction
     A. Hook: use personal experience briefly ("Like millions of
        teenagers, I have sat through first period barely able to
        keep my eyes open.")
     B. Context: the AAP recommends starting after 8:30 AM; most
        schools start before 8:00 AM.
     C. Thesis: Pushing school start times to 8:30 AM or later
        would improve academic performance, reduce teen car
        accidents, and support adolescent health, with minimal
        disruption to family schedules.

II.  The science: why teenagers need later start times
     A. Circadian rhythm shift during puberty
     B. Biological inability to fall asleep before 11 PM
     C. 8-10 hours of sleep recommended; early starts make this
        impossible

III. The benefits: what later start times achieve
     A. Academic performance: studies show grade improvements
     B. Safety: reduction in drowsy-driving accidents
     C. Health: lower rates of depression, obesity
     D. Athletic performance improvement (brief mention)

IV.  Real-world evidence: schools that have already changed
     A. Seattle school district: 34 minutes later, 4.5% grade
        increase
     B. California statewide policy (2022): early results

V.   Counterargument and rebuttal
     A. Parent schedules disrupted -- but after-school programs
        and staggered schedules address this
     B. Bus scheduling costs -- but reduced healthcare and accident
        costs offset this

VI.  Conclusion
     A. The science is clear, the evidence is growing
     B. Students deserve policies based on biology, not tradition

What Changed

Before	After
10 disorganized entries	6 focused sections with clear logic
Personal anecdote as a full paragraph	Brief hook in the introduction
Benefits scattered across the essay	Benefits grouped in one section (III)
Counterargument mentioned but not refuted	Counterargument section with specific rebuttals (V)
Vague references to schools that changed	Specific examples with data (IV)
No clear thesis	Thesis previews three main benefits

The revised outline transforms a C-level essay into a B+ or A-level essay before a single new sentence is written. The structure now supports the argument instead of undermining it.

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Outlining for Different Essay Types: Quick Patterns

Different essay types benefit from different outline structures. Here are reliable patterns you can adapt.

Persuasive/Argumentative Essay

I.   Introduction + thesis
II.  Strongest argument
III. Second argument
IV.  Third argument (or counterargument + rebuttal)
V.   Conclusion

Compare-Contrast Essay (Block Method)

I.   Introduction + thesis
II.  Subject A (all aspects)
III. Subject B (all aspects, same order)
IV.  Analysis: what the comparison reveals
V.   Conclusion

Compare-Contrast Essay (Point-by-Point)

I.   Introduction + thesis
II.  Aspect 1: Subject A vs. Subject B
III. Aspect 2: Subject A vs. Subject B
IV.  Aspect 3: Subject A vs. Subject B
V.   Conclusion

Cause-and-Effect Essay

I.   Introduction + thesis
II.  Cause 1 (or Effect 1)
III. Cause 2 (or Effect 2)
IV.  Cause 3 (or Effect 3)
V.   Connections between causes/effects
VI.  Conclusion

Problem-Solution Essay

I.   Introduction: define the problem
II.  Scope and impact of the problem
III. Proposed solution
IV.  How the solution works (implementation)
V.   Anticipated objections and responses
VI.  Conclusion

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Quick Summary

Concept	Key Point
Outline to draft	Turn main points into topic sentences, expand sub-points into evidence and analysis, add transitions
Reverse outline	Summarize each existing paragraph in one sentence to diagnose structural problems
Before/after revision	Reorganize scattered points into logical groups, add missing sections, cut irrelevant material
Essay-type patterns	Different essay types have reliable outline templates you can adapt
Best practice	Start with an informal outline, formalize as needed, reverse-outline your draft to check structure

Outlining Reference

This section provides ready-to-use outline templates, formatting conventions, a catalog of common outlining mistakes, and a pre-writing planning checklist. Use this as a practical reference whenever you are preparing to write.

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Outline Templates

The following templates cover the most common essay types. Copy the structure and fill in your own content. Adjust the number of body sections based on your assignment's length and complexity.

Template 1: Five-Paragraph Essay (Timed Exams)

This is the fastest template to use under time pressure. It works for IELTS Task 2, TOEFL Integrated/Independent, and AP Free Response.

Thesis: [Your main argument in one sentence]

Body 1: [First supporting point]
  - Evidence: [Specific fact, example, or statistic]
  - So what: [Why this evidence matters]

Body 2: [Second supporting point]
  - Evidence: [Specific fact, example, or statistic]
  - So what: [Why this evidence matters]

Body 3: [Third supporting point OR counterargument + rebuttal]
  - Evidence: [Specific fact, example, or statistic]
  - So what: [Why this evidence matters]

Conclusion: [Restate thesis + broader implication]

Time allocation for a 40-minute timed essay:

Phase	Time
Read prompt and outline	5 minutes
Draft introduction	5 minutes
Draft body paragraphs (3)	20 minutes
Draft conclusion	5 minutes
Proofread	5 minutes

Template 2: Extended Essay (1000-2000 words)

This template adds depth with more evidence per section and a dedicated counterargument.

I.   Introduction
     A. Hook: [Attention-grabbing opening]
     B. Context: [Background the reader needs]
     C. Thesis: [Central argument + preview of supporting points]

II.  First Supporting Argument
     A. Topic sentence: [Claim connected to thesis]
     B. Evidence 1: [Primary source, statistic, or example]
     C. Analysis of Evidence 1
     D. Evidence 2: [Secondary supporting evidence]
     E. Analysis of Evidence 2
     F. Connection back to thesis

III. Second Supporting Argument
     A. Topic sentence: [Claim connected to thesis]
     B. Evidence 1: [Primary source, statistic, or example]
     C. Analysis of Evidence 1
     D. Evidence 2: [Secondary supporting evidence]
     E. Analysis of Evidence 2
     F. Connection back to thesis

IV.  Third Supporting Argument
     [Same structure as II and III]

V.   Counterargument and Rebuttal
     A. Strongest opposing argument: [State it fairly]
     B. Why it seems persuasive: [Acknowledge its appeal]
     C. Why it fails: [Evidence or reasoning that refutes it]
     D. How this strengthens your original argument

VI.  Conclusion
     A. Restate thesis in new language
     B. Synthesize (do not just list) the main points
     C. Broader implication, call to action, or forward-looking
        statement

Template 3: Research Paper (2000+ words)

Research papers require a more flexible structure. This template includes a literature review section and allows for multiple body sections.

I.    Introduction
      A. Research question or problem statement
      B. Why this matters (significance)
      C. Thesis or hypothesis
      D. Brief overview of methodology (if applicable)

II.   Literature Review / Background
      A. What previous research has found
      B. Gaps in existing knowledge
      C. How your paper addresses those gaps

III.  Body Section 1: [First major finding or argument]
      A. Claim
      B. Evidence from research
      C. Analysis
      D. How this connects to your thesis

IV.   Body Section 2: [Second major finding or argument]
      [Same structure]

V.    Body Section 3: [Third major finding or argument]
      [Same structure]

VI.   Discussion
      A. What the findings mean taken together
      B. Limitations of your analysis
      C. Implications for the field
      D. Suggestions for future research

VII.  Conclusion
      A. Summary of argument and findings
      B. Significance restated
      C. Final thought

Template 4: Compare-Contrast Essay

Point-by-Point Method (recommended for most essays):

I.   Introduction + thesis

II.  Point of Comparison 1
     A. Subject A
     B. Subject B
     C. Analysis: what this comparison reveals

III. Point of Comparison 2
     A. Subject A
     B. Subject B
     C. Analysis: what this comparison reveals

IV.  Point of Comparison 3
     A. Subject A
     B. Subject B
     C. Analysis: what this comparison reveals

V.   Conclusion: overall significance of the comparison

Block Method (better when subjects are very different):

I.   Introduction + thesis

II.  Subject A
     A. Aspect 1
     B. Aspect 2
     C. Aspect 3

III. Subject B
     A. Aspect 1 (same as A's Aspect 1 for parallel structure)
     B. Aspect 2
     C. Aspect 3

IV.  Analysis: what the comparison reveals

V.   Conclusion

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Formatting Conventions

If your instructor or institution requires a formal outline, follow these standard conventions.

Numbering System

The standard hierarchical numbering system uses alternating numbers and letters:

I.    First level (Roman numerals)
      A.  Second level (capital letters)
          1.  Third level (Arabic numerals)
              a.  Fourth level (lowercase letters)
                  (1) Fifth level (Arabic numerals in parentheses)
                      (a) Sixth level (lowercase letters in parentheses)

Most outlines rarely go beyond the third or fourth level. If you need more levels, your outline may be too detailed or your categories may need to be reorganized.

Parallel Structure

Every entry at the same level should use the same grammatical structure. If your first Roman numeral entry starts with a verb, all Roman numeral entries should start with a verb. If your capital letter entries are noun phrases, keep them all as noun phrases.

Parallel (correct):

I.   Reducing operational costs
II.  Improving employee satisfaction
III. Strengthening brand reputation

Not parallel (incorrect):

I.   Reducing operational costs
II.  Employee satisfaction is improved
III. Brand reputation

The first uses gerund phrases consistently. The second mixes gerund phrases, passive clauses, and bare noun phrases.

The Rule of Two

If you have a sub-point A, you must have at least a sub-point B. If you have only one sub-point, it should be merged into the parent point. A single sub-point means you have not actually divided the idea.

Incorrect:

II. Benefits of remote work
    A. Cost savings

If cost savings is the only sub-point, either add more sub-points or merge it:

Corrected (option 1 -- add sub-points):

II. Benefits of remote work
    A. Cost savings for employers
    B. Increased flexibility for employees
    C. Access to wider talent pool

Corrected (option 2 -- merge):

II. The cost savings of remote work

Capitalization and Punctuation

• Topic outlines: Capitalize the first word of each entry. No periods at the end (since entries are not complete sentences).
• Sentence outlines: Capitalize the first word and end each entry with a period (since entries are complete sentences).
• Do not mix topic and sentence entries within the same outline. Choose one format and be consistent.

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Common Outlining Mistakes

These are the errors writers make most frequently when outlining, along with explanations of why they cause problems and how to fix them.

Mistake 1: Outlining After Drafting (as the Only Strategy)

Some writers draft first and create an outline only when required to submit one. This defeats the purpose. The outline should guide the writing, not retroactively document it. Exception: reverse outlining is a valuable revision tool, but it supplements rather than replaces pre-writing outlines.

Fix: Outline before you draft, even if the outline is informal. Use reverse outlining during revision as a second step.

Mistake 2: Over-Outlining

Some writers create outlines so detailed that they spend more time planning than writing. An outline with six levels of indentation and complete sentences at every level is often a form of procrastination disguised as productivity.

Fix: Match your outline's detail to the assignment. For a 500-word essay, a 10-line informal outline is plenty. For a 5,000-word research paper, a detailed sentence outline is appropriate. If your outline is longer than one page for a standard essay, you have gone too far.

Mistake 3: Treating the Outline as Unchangeable

An outline is a plan, not a contract. Writers who refuse to deviate from their outline even when they discover better ideas during drafting produce rigid, lifeless essays. The outline should serve the essay, not the other way around.

Fix: Allow your outline to evolve during drafting. If you discover a better argument or a more logical order while writing, update the outline and follow the stronger path.

Mistake 4: Listing Instead of Organizing

A list of ideas is not an outline. An outline shows hierarchical relationships -- which ideas are main points and which are supporting details. A flat list treats everything as equally important.

List (not an outline):

- Cost savings
- Employee satisfaction
- Remote work technology
- Environmental benefits
- Management challenges
- Company culture

Outline (organized):

I.   Financial benefits
     A. Cost savings for employers
     B. Reduced commuting costs for employees
II.  Workforce benefits
     A. Employee satisfaction and flexibility
     B. Access to global talent
III. Challenges and solutions
     A. Management difficulties --> virtual management tools
     B. Culture concerns --> intentional team-building practices

The outline groups related ideas, establishes hierarchy, and shows how points connect.

Mistake 5: Ignoring the Thesis

Every section of your outline should connect to your thesis. If an outline entry does not support, develop, or contextualize the thesis, it does not belong in the essay.

Fix: After completing your outline, read each main point and ask: "Does this directly support my thesis?" If the answer is no, cut it or revise your thesis to account for it.

Mistake 6: No Counterargument Section

For argumentative essays, failing to plan for counterarguments is a common and serious oversight. An outline that includes only supporting points produces a one-sided essay that fails to engage with opposing perspectives.

Fix: For any argumentative essay, include a section in your outline for at least one counterargument and your rebuttal.

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Pre-Writing Planning Checklist

Use this checklist before you start outlining to ensure you have done the necessary preparation.

Understanding the Assignment

• I have read the prompt or assignment at least twice.
• I understand what the prompt is asking me to do (argue, analyze, explain, compare).
• I know the required word count or page length.
• I know the deadline and have allocated time for planning, drafting, and revision.
• I understand the evaluation criteria or rubric.

Generating Ideas

• I have brainstormed at least 5-10 ideas related to the topic.
• I have identified which ideas are strongest and most relevant.
• I have considered multiple perspectives on the topic.
• I have identified at least one counterargument to my position.

Forming the Thesis

• I have a working thesis that is arguable, specific, and clear.
• My thesis responds directly to the prompt.
• My thesis can be supported with available evidence.
• My thesis is appropriately scoped for the assignment length.

Gathering Evidence

• I have at least one piece of evidence for each main point.
• My evidence comes from credible sources (for research essays).
• I know which specific facts, examples, or quotations I will use.
• I have evidence to support my rebuttal of counterarguments.

Building the Outline

• Each main point in my outline supports the thesis.
• My points are arranged in a logical order (chronological, order of importance, cause-effect, etc.).
• Each main point has at least one piece of supporting evidence or reasoning.
• I have included a counterargument and rebuttal section (for argumentative essays).
• My outline uses parallel structure at each level.
• I have not gone deeper than necessary (no over-outlining).

Final Check

• If I gave this outline to someone who knows nothing about the topic, could they understand the structure of my argument?
• Does every section connect logically to the sections before and after it?
• Am I confident that I can develop each outline entry into a full paragraph?
• Is my outline the right level of detail for my available planning time?

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Order of Importance: Arranging Your Points

One of the most consequential decisions in outlining is the order in which you present your arguments. Here are the most common ordering strategies.

Strategy	How It Works	Best For
Strongest first	Lead with your best argument to establish credibility immediately	Business writing, opinion pieces, situations where readers may not finish
Strongest last	Build toward your most powerful argument for a climactic finish	Academic essays, persuasive writing where you want maximum impact at the end
Chronological	Present points in time order	Historical analysis, process explanations, narrative essays
Cause to effect	Start with causes, then show their consequences	Analytical essays examining why something happened
Problem to solution	Define the problem, then present the solution	Policy papers, proposal writing
Simple to complex	Start with easy-to-understand points and build to more sophisticated ones	Technical writing, essays for general audiences

For most academic essays, strongest last is the recommended approach. It mirrors the structure of a good speech: start solid, build momentum, finish strong. The last body paragraph before the conclusion is the position of greatest emphasis.

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Quick Reference Card

Item	Guideline
Timed exam outline	Thesis + 3 bullet points, 2-5 minutes
Standard essay outline	Topic outline with evidence noted, 10-20 minutes
Research paper outline	Sentence outline with sources mapped, 1-3 hours
Numbering	I. / A. / 1. / a.
Parallel structure	Same grammatical form at each level
Rule of two	Every A needs a B; single sub-points should be merged
Counterarguments	Always plan for at least one in argumentative essays
Outline flexibility	Update the outline if better ideas emerge during drafting
Reverse outlining	Summarize each paragraph post-draft to check structure
Order of points	Usually strongest last for academic writing