Master academic writing conventions. Use appropriate tone, vocabulary, and citations.
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Academic register is the specific variety of language used in scholarly writing — research papers, journal articles, dissertations, academic essays, and formal examinations like IELTS, TOEFL, and AP English. It is not simply "formal language" in general; it is a particular kind of formality shaped by the values of academic culture: precision, objectivity, evidence-based reasoning, and intellectual rigor.
Every community has its own communication norms. Doctors speak differently to each other than they do to patients. Lawyers write contracts in language that sounds nothing like a text message. Similarly, academics have developed a register that reflects the priorities of scholarship:
Using academic register signals that you understand and respect the conventions of scholarly discourse. It tells your reader (whether a professor, a journal reviewer, or an exam scorer) that you are a competent participant in academic conversation.
Academic writing operates at the higher end of the formality spectrum. This means:
Too informal: There's a lot of evidence that shows climate change is basically caused by humans, and it's kind of a big deal.
Academic: Substantial evidence indicates that anthropogenic factors are the primary drivers of climate change, a phenomenon with far-reaching environmental and socioeconomic implications.
Academic writing avoids vague language and demands specificity. Every claim should be as precise as the evidence allows.
| Vague | Precise |
|---|---|
| a lot of people | approximately 2.3 million individuals |
| recently | within the past decade or since 2018 |
| things | factors, variables, phenomena, elements |
| stuff | materials, components, subject matter |
| good results | statistically significant improvements |
| big problem | a substantial challenge or a critical issue |
| very important | essential, fundamental, crucial |
| a few studies | several studies (e.g., Smith, 2019; Lee, 2020) |
Vague language forces the reader to guess what you mean. Precise language eliminates that guesswork.
Academic writing presents evidence and analysis rather than personal feelings or subjective reactions. The focus is on what the evidence shows, not on what the writer feels about it.
Subjective: I think this theory is really interesting and makes a lot of sense to me.
Objective: This theory provides a compelling framework that is supported by the experimental data presented in recent studies.
Subjective: The results were amazing and way better than anyone expected.
Objective: The results exceeded initial projections, demonstrating a 34% improvement over the control group.
Objectivity does not mean you cannot have a position or argue for a thesis. It means your arguments should be grounded in evidence and logic, presented in measured language, and open to counterargument.
Hedging is the practice of using cautious language to avoid making claims that are stronger than the evidence supports. This is one of the defining features of academic writing.
Unhedged (too strong): Social media causes depression in teenagers.
Hedged (appropriately cautious): Research suggests that excessive social media use may be associated with increased rates of depression among adolescents.
Common hedging devices:
| Device | Examples |
|---|---|
| Modal verbs | may, might, could, would |
| Hedging verbs | suggest, indicate, appear, seem, tend |
| Hedging adverbs | perhaps, possibly, potentially, arguably |
| Hedging adjectives | possible, probable, likely, apparent |
| Hedging phrases | it is possible that, there is evidence to suggest, it appears that |
| Frequency qualifiers | often, sometimes, in many cases, in some instances |
| Quantifying hedges | to some extent, to a certain degree, in part |
Hedging is not about being evasive. It is about being honest about the limits of your evidence and leaving room for alternative interpretations.
Academic writing uses more complex sentence structures than everyday writing. This includes:
Subordinate clauses: Although the initial results were promising, the long-term effects remain uncertain.
Relative clauses: The participants, who were selected through stratified random sampling, completed a 45-item questionnaire.
Nominalization (turning verbs into nouns):
Parallel structures: The study aimed to examine the prevalence of the disorder, to identify contributing risk factors, and to evaluate potential interventions.
However, complexity should never come at the expense of clarity. A long, convoluted sentence that confuses the reader is worse than a short, clear one. Academic register demands complex ideas, but those ideas can often be expressed in well-organized, readable sentences.
In academic writing, every significant claim needs support. Unsupported assertions undermine your credibility.
Unsupported: Video games improve cognitive function.
Supported: Several studies have demonstrated that certain types of video games may improve specific cognitive functions, including spatial reasoning and attention management (Green & Bavelier, 2012; Boot et al., 2017).
Even when you are not formally citing sources (as in an IELTS or TOEFL essay), you should present claims as reasoned conclusions rather than personal declarations.
Academic register shares features with other formal registers (business, legal, journalistic) but has its own distinctive qualities:
| Feature | Academic | Business | Legal |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hedging | Extensive | Moderate | Minimal (precision required) |
| Citations | Essential | Occasional | Case references |
| Personal opinion | Avoided unless qualified | Acceptable in recommendations | Largely absent |
| Technical vocabulary | Field-specific | Industry jargon | Legal terminology |
| Sentence length | Long, complex | Moderate | Very long, precise |
| Goal | Knowledge contribution | Decision-making | Obligation/rights |
Academic register is not about sounding pretentious or using unnecessarily complex language. At its best, academic writing is:
The following sections will explore the specific tools you need to achieve this voice: vocabulary choices, impersonal constructions, and attribution techniques.
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Vocabulary is one of the most noticeable markers of academic register. Academic texts use a distinct set of words that are more precise, more formal, and more abstract than everyday language. This section introduces the key vocabulary patterns you need to write convincingly in an academic context.
Linguist Averil Coxhead developed the Academic Word List (AWL) by analyzing a corpus of millions of words from academic texts across 28 subject areas. The AWL identifies 570 word families that appear frequently in academic writing but are relatively rare in everyday conversation.
Here are some of the most important AWL words, organized by function:
| Word | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| analyze | examine in detail | The study analyzed data from 500 respondents. |
| assess | evaluate or estimate | It is necessary to assess the long-term impact. |
| identify | recognize or determine | The researchers identified three key factors. |
| establish | prove or set up | The study established a clear correlation. |
| indicate | point to or suggest | The results indicate a significant trend. |
| demonstrate | show clearly | The experiment demonstrated the effectiveness of the intervention. |
| evaluate | judge the value of | This paper evaluates current approaches to the problem. |
| interpret | explain the meaning of | The data can be interpreted in several ways. |
| derive | obtain from a source | The formula was derived from earlier models. |
| investigate | study systematically | This study investigates the relationship between diet and disease. |
| Word | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| concept | an abstract idea | The concept of sustainability has evolved significantly. |
| framework | a structure for understanding | This theoretical framework guides the analysis. |
| perspective | a point of view | From a historical perspective, the policy was innovative. |
| hypothesis | a testable prediction | The hypothesis was supported by the experimental data. |
| assumption | something taken as true | The model relies on several key assumptions. |
| implication | a possible consequence or meaning | The findings have important implications for policy. |
| constraint | a limitation | Budget constraints affected the scope of the study. |
| paradigm | a model or pattern | This represents a shift in the prevailing paradigm. |
| dimension | an aspect or feature | The issue has economic, social, and political dimensions. |
| phenomenon | an observable event or occurrence | This phenomenon has been documented across cultures. |
| Word | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| correlate | have a mutual relationship | Income levels correlate with educational attainment. |
| correspond | match or be equivalent | These findings correspond with earlier research. |
| contribute | play a part in causing | Several factors contribute to the problem. |
| facilitate | make easier or possible | Technology can facilitate remote collaboration. |
| constitute | make up or form | Women constitute 52% of the workforce. |
| precede | come before | A period of economic growth preceded the crisis. |
| subsequent | coming after | Subsequent research confirmed the initial findings. |
| concurrent | happening at the same time | The policy change was concurrent with a shift in public opinion. |
One of the most practical steps toward academic register is systematically replacing informal vocabulary with more precise academic alternatives.
| Informal | Academic Alternatives | Context |
|---|---|---|
| big | significant, substantial, considerable, major | a significant increase |
| small | minor, marginal, negligible, limited | a marginal improvement |
| good | positive, favorable, beneficial, effective | a beneficial outcome |
| bad | negative, adverse, detrimental, problematic | an adverse effect |
| important | significant, essential, crucial, critical, fundamental | a crucial distinction |
| interesting | noteworthy, compelling, significant | a noteworthy finding |
| show | demonstrate, illustrate, reveal, indicate | The data reveal a pattern. |
| think | consider, argue, maintain, contend, propose | Several scholars contend that... |
| get | obtain, acquire, achieve, attain | Participants were asked to obtain consent. |
| give | provide, offer, present, furnish | The study provides evidence. |
| use | employ, utilize, apply, adopt | The researchers employed a mixed-methods approach. |
| keep | maintain, retain, preserve, sustain | It is important to maintain consistency. |
| change | alter, modify, transform, revise | The policy was modified in 2019. |
| make | produce, generate, create, construct | The model generates predictions. |
| about | regarding, concerning, with respect to, pertaining to | Questions regarding the methodology... |
| a lot | considerably, substantially, significantly, extensively | Research has substantially expanded. |
| but | however, nevertheless, yet, nonetheless, although | However, the results were inconclusive. |
| so | therefore, consequently, thus, hence, accordingly | Consequently, the hypothesis was rejected. |
Do not replace every simple word with a complex one. Academic writing values clarity, and sometimes the simple word is the best choice:
The goal is precision, not pretension. Ask yourself: does the replacement add precision or nuance? If so, use it. If it just makes the sentence longer, keep the original.
Nominalization is the process of turning verbs or adjectives into nouns. It is one of the most distinctive features of academic writing and creates a more abstract, information-dense style.
| Verb/Adjective | Nominalization | Common Suffixes |
|---|---|---|
| decide | decision | -ion, -sion |
| analyze | analysis | -sis, -ysis |
| develop | development | -ment |
| significant | significance | -ance, -ence |
| stable | stability | -ity, -ty |
| aware | awareness | -ness |
| fail | failure | -ure |
| discover | discovery | -ery, -ry |
| resist | resistance | -ance |
| grow | growth | (irregular) |
Verbal style (less academic): The researchers decided to investigate how poverty affects children's ability to learn. They discovered that when families struggle financially, children develop more slowly.
Nominalized style (more academic): The researchers' decision to investigate the effect of poverty on children's learning ability led to the discovery that financial hardship is associated with slower cognitive development.
The nominalized version packs more information into fewer clauses and sounds more characteristic of academic prose.
Overuse of nominalizations creates writing that is dense, abstract, and difficult to follow:
Over-nominalized: The implementation of the investigation of the utilization of resources led to the identification of inefficiencies in the allocation of funding.
Clearer: When investigators examined how resources were used, they identified inefficiencies in funding allocation.
Use nominalizations strategically — they should clarify and condense, not obscure.
Hedging is so important in academic writing that it deserves detailed treatment. Hedging allows you to make claims with appropriate caution, signaling that you are aware of the limits of your evidence.
1. Modal verbs (varying degrees of certainty):
| Strength | Modals | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Strong possibility | will, would | This would explain the discrepancy. |
| Moderate possibility | should, ought to | The trend should continue. |
| Weaker possibility | may, can | This may indicate a shift. |
| Weakest possibility | might, could | The results might be attributed to... |
2. Hedging verbs:
3. Hedging adverbs and adjectives:
4. Hedging phrases:
Compare these versions of the same claim:
No hedging (too strong): Social media addiction causes mental health problems in young people.
Appropriate hedging: Research suggests that excessive social media use may be associated with adverse mental health outcomes among young people, although the nature of this relationship requires further investigation.
The hedged version is more credible because it accurately represents the state of the evidence — there is a correlation, but causation has not been definitively established.
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One of the most distinctive features of traditional academic writing is its tendency to minimize the presence of the writer. Rather than announcing opinions through first-person declarations ("I think," "I believe," "In my opinion"), academic writing presents ideas as conclusions derived from evidence and reasoning. This section explores the techniques for achieving an objective, impersonal voice.
The convention of avoiding first person in academic writing is rooted in several important principles:
Academic arguments should stand on their evidence and logic, not on the authority or personality of the writer. When you write "I think climate change is a serious problem," the claim rests on your personal opinion. When you write "The evidence overwhelmingly demonstrates that climate change poses a serious threat," the claim rests on the evidence.
In scientific writing, the goal is to describe findings that anyone could reproduce. Inserting personal perspectives into methodology or results sections would undermine this:
Personal: I measured the temperature every hour because I thought it was important.
Objective: Temperature was measured at hourly intervals to capture diurnal variations.
Readers of academic writing expect a certain voice. Using first person extensively can make your writing sound like a personal essay or opinion piece rather than a scholarly analysis.
Before exploring impersonal alternatives, it is important to note that the "no first person" rule is not absolute. Many disciplines and style guides now accept or even encourage first person in specific situations:
Acceptable uses of "I" or "we":
Fields more accepting of first person: humanities, qualitative social science, some applied sciences
Fields that generally avoid first person: hard sciences, engineering, formal reports
Testing situations (IELTS, TOEFL, AP English): Limited first person is acceptable, but impersonal constructions demonstrate greater language sophistication.
The key takeaway is: know your audience's expectations. When in doubt, the impersonal approach is safer and demonstrates higher-level language control.
Impersonal constructions allow you to present ideas without foregrounding yourself as the source of the opinion. Here are the most important patterns:
The word "it" can serve as an empty (or "dummy") subject, allowing you to present a claim without attributing it to yourself:
| First Person | Impersonal with "It" |
|---|---|
| I think this is important. | It is important to consider... |
| I believe the evidence shows... | It is evident that... |
| I argue that this policy failed. | It can be argued that this policy failed. |
| I suggest that more research is needed. | It is suggested that further research is warranted. |
| I noticed that the results varied. | It was observed that the results varied. |
Common "it" constructions in academic writing:
The pronoun "one" refers to people in general, including the writer, without being personal:
| First Person | Using "One" |
|---|---|
| I can see that... | One can observe that... |
| If you think about it... | If one considers the evidence... |
| I would argue that... | One might argue that... |
| You have to consider... | One must consider... |
"One" is more common in British academic English than in American English, where it can sound overly formal. Use it sparingly — two or three uses per essay is usually the maximum before it starts to sound stilted.
Passive voice removes the agent (the person performing the action), which naturally eliminates first person:
| Active with "I/We" | Passive (Impersonal) |
|---|---|
| I conducted 30 interviews. | Thirty interviews were conducted. |
| We analyzed the data using SPSS. | The data were analyzed using SPSS. |
| I found a significant correlation. | A significant correlation was found. |
| We can conclude that... | It can be concluded that... |
| I reviewed the existing literature. | The existing literature was reviewed. |
Passive voice is particularly useful in methods sections where the focus should be on what was done, not who did it.
Instead of saying "I" did something, you can make your work the grammatical subject:
| First Person | Paper/Study as Subject |
|---|---|
| I examine three case studies. | This paper examines three case studies. |
| I argue that the policy was flawed. | This essay argues that the policy was flawed. |
| We found that... | The study found that... |
| I will demonstrate that... | The following analysis demonstrates that... |
| In this essay, I discuss... | This essay discusses... |
This technique is widely accepted across disciplines and sounds natural in most academic contexts.
You can make concepts, evidence, or findings the subject of your sentences:
| First Person | Abstract Noun as Subject |
|---|---|
| I think the data shows... | The data suggest... |
| I believe this is caused by... | The evidence points to... |
| I can see a trend... | A clear trend emerges... |
| We should note that... | An important observation is that... |
| I found it interesting that... | A noteworthy finding is that... |
Beyond eliminating "I" and "we," academic writing requires removing other markers of subjectivity — emotional language, unsupported opinions, and absolute statements.
| Subjective | Objective |
|---|---|
| I feel that this approach is wrong. | This approach has been criticized for several methodological limitations (Chen, 2020). |
| Everyone knows that exercise is good for you. | Extensive research has established a positive correlation between regular physical activity and improved health outcomes. |
| Obviously, the government should act. | The data suggest that government intervention may be warranted. |
| This is clearly the best solution. | Among the options considered, this approach offers several distinct advantages. |
| Emotional/Evaluative | Measured |
|---|---|
| This is a terrible policy. | This policy has been widely criticized for its unintended consequences. |
| The results are amazing. | The results are statistically significant and merit further investigation. |
| This breakthrough will change everything. | This development has the potential to significantly influence future research in the field. |
| It is shocking that so little has been done. | The limited response to this issue raises questions about current priorities. |
Academic writing rarely uses absolute terms because most claims have exceptions:
| Absolute (Too Strong) | Qualified (Appropriate) |
|---|---|
| always | typically, generally, in most cases |
| never | rarely, seldom, in few cases |
| all | the majority, most, many |
| none | few, a minority |
| proves | supports, suggests, indicates |
| definitely | likely, probably, arguably |
| the best | among the most effective, a leading |
| the worst | among the least effective, a significant challenge |
I think that social media has a really bad effect on teenagers. You can see that they spend way too much time on their phones, and I believe this is making them anxious and depressed. In my opinion, parents should definitely limit screen time. I feel very strongly about this because I've seen it happen with people I know.
Research suggests that social media usage may have adverse effects on adolescent mental health. Studies have indicated that excessive screen time is associated with elevated rates of anxiety and depression among young people (Twenge, 2017; Orben & Przybylski, 2019). Based on these findings, several experts have recommended that parents establish reasonable limits on screen time, although the optimal approach remains a subject of ongoing debate.
The transformation involves:
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Academic writing is fundamentally a conversation. When you write an academic paper or essay, you are joining a discussion that other scholars have been contributing to — sometimes for decades or centuries. Attribution is how you acknowledge those contributions, give credit to other researchers, and position your own ideas within the broader scholarly landscape.
Attribution serves several critical functions in academic writing:
Using someone else's ideas, data, or words without attribution is plagiarism — one of the most serious offenses in academic culture. Proper attribution distinguishes between your original contributions and ideas you have drawn from other sources.
When you attribute a claim to a credible source, you strengthen your argument. A reader is more likely to accept "Research by Stanford University found that..." than an unsupported assertion.
Citations allow your readers to locate your sources and verify your claims. This is part of the self-correcting nature of academic inquiry.
Proper attribution shows that you have read widely in your field and understand the existing research landscape. This demonstrates competence and scholarly engagement.
A signal phrase introduces a source into your text. It names the author and typically includes a reporting verb that characterizes the source's contribution.
Author + reporting verb + that/claim/finding
Signal phrases can appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence:
Beginning: Johnson (2018) found that early intervention significantly improved outcomes.
Middle: The relationship between diet and disease, as Williams (2020) observes, is more complex than previously assumed.
End: Social isolation has become increasingly prevalent in urban environments (Park, 2019).
Varying the position of your signal phrases prevents monotony and creates more natural-sounding prose.
Reporting verbs are the heart of academic attribution. The verb you choose signals your interpretation of the source — whether you find it convincing, neutral, or controversial.
These verbs present the source's contribution without evaluating it:
| Verb | Example |
|---|---|
| state | Brown (2019) states that the incidence rate has doubled. |
| note | As Chen (2020) notes, the sample was relatively small. |
| report | The study reports a 15% decrease in symptoms. |
| describe | Kim (2021) describes the process in three stages. |
| observe | Williams observes that this pattern is consistent across cultures. |
| identify | The researchers identify four key variables. |
| present | Lee (2018) presents an alternative framework. |
| explain | Garcia explains how the mechanism works. |
| outline | The report outlines a series of recommendations. |
| indicate | The findings indicate a positive trend. |
These verbs imply that the source's position is strong or well-supported:
| Verb | Example |
|---|---|
| demonstrate | Smith (2020) demonstrates that the intervention is effective. |
| establish | Previous research has established a clear link between X and Y. |
| confirm | Recent data confirm earlier findings. |
| prove | The experiment proved the hypothesis correct. |
| show | Multiple studies show consistent results. |
| verify | Subsequent analyses verified the original conclusions. |
| support | The evidence supports this interpretation. |
| reveal | The analysis reveals a previously unrecognized pattern. |
| highlight | Davis (2019) highlights the importance of early detection. |
| emphasize | Johnson emphasizes the need for longitudinal studies. |
These verbs indicate that the source is making a claim or taking a stance (not just reporting facts):
| Verb | Example |
|---|---|
| argue | Thompson (2021) argues that the current framework is inadequate. |
| claim | The author claims that the results are generalizable. |
| contend | Several scholars contend that the methodology was flawed. |
| assert | White (2020) asserts that a paradigm shift is necessary. |
| maintain | Proponents maintain that the benefits outweigh the costs. |
| propose | Lee proposes a revised model that accounts for... |
| suggest | The authors suggest an alternative explanation. |
| recommend | The committee recommends increased funding. |
| advocate | Garcia (2019) advocates for a community-based approach. |
| hypothesize | Brown hypothesizes that the effect is mediated by... |
These verbs signal that you or others view the source's claims with some skepticism:
| Verb | Example |
|---|---|
| question | Several researchers question the validity of these findings. |
| challenge | New evidence challenges the prevailing theory. |
| dispute | Critics dispute the claim that... |
| reject | The committee rejected the proposed methodology. |
| criticize | The approach has been criticized for its narrow scope. |
| contradict | These results contradict earlier studies. |
| undermine | The findings undermine the assumption that... |
| refute | Subsequent research refuted the original claim. |
| dismiss | Some scholars have dismissed the theory as unfounded. |
| overlook | The study overlooks several important variables. |
The reporting verb you choose sends a signal about how you evaluate the source. Consider:
In academic writing, you will use sources in two main ways: paraphrasing (restating ideas in your own words) and quoting (using the exact words from the source).
Paraphrasing is the preferred method of incorporating sources in most academic writing. A good paraphrase:
Original (source text): "The rapid expansion of social media platforms has fundamentally altered the way adolescents form and maintain social relationships, creating both opportunities for connection and risks for psychological well-being." (Park, 2021, p. 45)
Poor paraphrase (too close to original): The quick expansion of social media has fundamentally changed how teenagers form and keep social relationships, creating opportunities for connection and risks for mental health (Park, 2021).
This is too close — it merely swaps individual words while keeping the same structure.
Good paraphrase: According to Park (2021), the rise of social media has transformed adolescent social dynamics, introducing new possibilities for building connections while simultaneously posing threats to mental health.
This version restructures the sentence, uses different vocabulary, and maintains the meaning.
Direct quotation should be used sparingly in academic writing. Reserve quotes for:
Example of a well-integrated quote:
Turkle (2015) describes this paradox as the situation in which people are "alone together" (p. 1), physically present with others yet psychologically absorbed in their devices.
Notice how the quote is short, integrated into the sentence, and the surrounding text provides context and interpretation.
Avoid long block quotes when possible. If you must use one, always follow it with your own analysis explaining why the quoted passage matters.
Whether paraphrasing or quoting, the source material should be woven seamlessly into your own prose:
Dropped in (poor integration): Social media affects teenagers. "The rapid expansion of social media platforms has fundamentally altered the way adolescents form and maintain social relationships" (Park, 2021, p. 45). This is an important issue.
Integrated (strong): Park (2021) observes that social media has "fundamentally altered the way adolescents form and maintain social relationships" (p. 45), a transformation that carries significant implications for both educators and mental health professionals.
In timed writing exams (IELTS, TOEFL, AP English), you will not have access to specific sources. However, you can still use attribution techniques to strengthen your arguments:
These phrases signal that you are grounding your claims in a broader knowledge base, even without specific citations.
约6分钟阅读
This section provides quick-reference resources for writing and self-editing in academic register. Use it as a final check before submitting any academic writing.
When editing your academic writing, scan for these informal words and phrases and consider replacing them with their formal alternatives.
| Avoid | Use Instead |
|---|---|
| a lot of / lots of | numerous, considerable, substantial, a significant number of |
| thing(s) | factor, aspect, element, component, phenomenon |
| stuff | material, subject matter, content, substance |
| kind of / sort of | somewhat, to some extent, rather |
| really / very | significantly, considerably, substantially, notably |
| big | major, substantial, significant, considerable |
| small | minor, marginal, negligible, limited |
| good | positive, beneficial, effective, favorable |
| bad | negative, adverse, detrimental, problematic |
| get | obtain, acquire, receive, achieve |
| give | provide, supply, offer, present |
| show | demonstrate, illustrate, indicate, reveal |
| find out | discover, determine, ascertain, establish |
| go up | increase, rise, grow, escalate |
| go down | decrease, decline, diminish, fall |
| make | create, produce, generate, construct |
| keep | maintain, retain, preserve, sustain |
| need | require, necessitate, demand |
| help | facilitate, assist, support, enable |
| use | employ, utilize, apply, adopt |
| change | alter, modify, transform, adjust, revise |
| about | approximately, regarding, concerning, with respect to |
| right now | currently, at present, presently |
| in the end | ultimately, finally, in conclusion |
| before | prior to, preceding |
| after | subsequent to, following |
| Avoid | Use Instead |
|---|---|
| but | however, nevertheless, yet, nonetheless, although |
| so | therefore, consequently, thus, hence, accordingly |
| also / and | furthermore, moreover, additionally, in addition |
| anyway | regardless, nevertheless, in any case |
| besides | in addition, furthermore, moreover |
| plus | additionally, furthermore |
| basically | fundamentally, essentially, in essence |
| like (comparison) | such as, for example, for instance |
| on top of that | furthermore, moreover, additionally |
| all in all | overall, in summary, on the whole |
Use hedging to make appropriately cautious claims. Organize your hedging by the level of certainty you want to express.
Choose your reporting verb based on the source's function and your evaluation of it.
| Verb | Use When... |
|---|---|
| state | the source makes a direct factual claim |
| note | the source makes an observation, often in passing |
| report | the source presents data or findings |
| describe | the source gives a detailed account |
| observe | the source notices or comments on something |
| identify | the source picks out specific elements |
| outline | the source provides an overview or summary |
| define | the source establishes the meaning of a term |
| explain | the source clarifies how or why something works |
| point out | the source draws attention to something specific |
| Verb | Use When... |
|---|---|
| argue | the source makes a reasoned case for a position |
| claim | the source asserts something (may imply it is debatable) |
| contend | the source maintains a position, often against opposition |
| assert | the source states something confidently |
| maintain | the source holds a position despite challenges |
| propose | the source puts forward a new idea or plan |
| suggest | the source offers a possibility (softer than "argue") |
| advocate | the source actively promotes an approach |
| insist | the source strongly maintains a position |
| theorize | the source develops an explanatory framework |
| Verb | Use When... |
|---|---|
| demonstrate | the source proves something convincingly |
| establish | the source creates a firm basis |
| confirm | the source validates previous findings |
| verify | the source independently checks findings |
| show | the source provides clear evidence |
| reveal | the source uncovers something new |
| support | the source provides backing for a claim |
| corroborate | the source provides additional confirming evidence |
| validate | the source proves something is sound |
| illustrate | the source provides a clear example |
| Verb | Use When... |
|---|---|
| question | the source raises doubts |
| challenge | the source contests an established view |
| dispute | the source disagrees with a specific claim |
| criticize | the source finds fault with |
| reject | the source completely dismisses |
| contradict | the source provides opposing evidence |
| undermine | the source weakens a claim |
| refute | the source disproves a claim |
| overlook | the source fails to consider something important |
| caution | the source warns against |
Use this checklist when revising any piece of academic writing. Go through your text systematically, checking each category.
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